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Inflammation plays a central role in reversible airway diseases, and anti-inflammatory therapy is key to long-term symptom control. Inhaled corticosteroids are the most commonly prescribed agents, targeting airway swelling and reducing hypersensitivity to triggers.

Daily use of inhaled corticosteroids decreases the frequency and severity of flare-ups. They act locally within the lungs, minimizing systemic side effects while maintaining efficacy. Patients with persistent symptoms may also benefit from combination therapy with long-acting bronchodilators for enhanced airflow and reduced inflammation.

Systemic corticosteroids are reserved for severe exacerbations. Although highly effective, prolonged use is associated with side effects such as weight gain, mood changes, and increased infection risk. Clinicians carefully weigh these risks when prescribing short-term courses.

Other anti-inflammatory options, such as leukotriene receptor antagonists, help block pathways responsible for airway constriction. They are particularly beneficial for patients with allergen-driven symptoms or exercise-induced episodes.

Effective anti-inflammatory therapy requires patient adherence, regular monitoring, and…

IgA vasculitis is a multi-system disease with a range of clinical manifestations. Recognizing the characteristic signs and symptoms is essential for early diagnosis and effective management. The disease primarily involves the skin, joints, gastrointestinal tract, and kidneys, producing a combination of acute and sometimes chronic symptoms.

The hallmark feature is palpable purpura, typically seen on the lower extremities and buttocks. These purplish spots are raised and non-blanching, indicating bleeding under the skin. Unlike simple bruising, palpable purpura is firm and often tender, helping distinguish IgA vasculitis from other dermatological conditions. In some cases, lesions may spread to the arms or trunk, but lower body involvement is most common.

Joint symptoms frequently accompany the rash, particularly in the knees and ankles. Patients experience swelling, stiffness, and pain, which can temporarily limit mobility. Although joint symptoms are usually self-limiting, they can be severe enough to interfere with daily activities, especially in children…

Hemorrhoids are among the most common anorectal conditions, and accurate diagnosis is essential for effective management. The proctoscope plays a central role in evaluating internal hemorrhoids, which are often not visible externally.

During examination, the proctoscope allows clinicians to assess the size, location, and severity of hemorrhoidal tissue. This information guides treatment decisions, ranging from conservative management to procedural interventions.

Proctoscopic examination helps rule out other causes of rectal bleeding, ensuring that symptoms are not mistakenly attributed to hemorrhoids alone. This is especially important in older patients or those with additional risk factors.

By providing clarity and precision, the proctoscope supports patient confidence and enables tailored treatment plans, reducing unnecessary interventions.

The tumor microenvironment is more than a passive setting—it actively shapes cancer behavior and treatment response. In PD-1 resistant head and neck cancer, the microenvironment often becomes hostile to immune activity.

Cancer-associated fibroblasts, suppressive immune cells, and inflammatory signals can all interfere with immune activation. These components create physical and chemical barriers that prevent immune cells from reaching or attacking tumor cells effectively.

Oxygen deprivation and abnormal blood vessels within tumors further limit immune infiltration. Even when PD-1 inhibitors activate immune cells, they may be unable to penetrate deeply into the tumor mass.

Addressing the tumor microenvironment has become a key focus in overcoming resistance. Therapies designed to normalize blood vessels, reduce suppressive signals, or reprogram immune cells are being explored to complement PD-1 inhibition.

By reshaping the tumor microenvironment, clinicians aim to transform resistant cancers into immune-responsive ones, opening new treatment possibilities.